The Beginnings of English Society – Social Bonds

The upper layers of society in 8th–10th-century England were characterized by the close relationship between a lord and his followers. This relationship was not based on tribal or kinship structures, but was distinctly personal in nature. The followers served their lord faithfully and were prepared to die for him in war. In times of peace, they lived together in the lord's hall or stronghold, and in return for their service they received provisions, weapons, and horses.

However, the relationship was more than simple service and compensation. The giving of gifts took place in a special ceremonial setting, and the bond entailed not only the lord's protection but also the expectation of vengeance for any harm done to him. Even at the end of the 10th century this form of relationship remained typical, and the adoption of Christianity brought little change. Over time the lord's gift evolved into an official due (heriot), symbolizing the follower's obligation. Land was also granted more frequently, and from the 11th century onward these donations were regulated by law.

The most important "gift," however, was protection—being under the safeguard of a powerful lord ensured safety, for everyone feared the vengeance of lords if their followers were harmed. The lord assumed responsibility for his men and even for their deeds.

Christianity did not oppose these ideals; rather, it reinforced the sanctity of the oath of loyalty and did not condemn acts of revenge carried out for the lord's death. It also accepted obligatory service as a legitimate duty of followers toward their lord. Killing someone in vengeance for the lord, or by his command, incurred only a milder punishment. Later it became common that the lord's command overrode all other considerations. A follower was expected to fight even against his dearest relative if the lord's interest required it, and revenge took precedence over personal feelings. Even though kinship played a crucial role in people's lives, loyalty to the lord had to come first.

Everyone depended on the support of their kin, and those without relatives were considered unfortunate and pitiable. If someone was injured or killed, it was the kin-group that avenged them, with the permission of the law. Vengeance was not intended for personal satisfaction but was seen as a duty. In the case of murder, the culprit's relatives were held responsible unless they formally renounced the offender, thereby removing the burden from themselves. Another way to prevent vengeance was compensation, though the injured party could refuse it and continue the feud.

Compensation had to correspond to the victim's rank, and this was regulated by established rules. At first it was calculated in oxen, later in money, according to the person's status. This classification became so widespread that people were referred to as "six-shilling men" or "hundred-shilling men," depending on their rank.

Vengeance also had strict rules: no revenge could be taken for someone killed in the defense of his lord. If the slain person was a habitual thief or guilty of other crimes, his relatives had to swear they would not avenge him, or they had to prove his innocence.

The spread of vengeance and its abuses inevitably brought it into conflict with the Church. Laws attempted to restrict blood-feud by encouraging peaceful settlement, especially compensation. The Church itself never took revenge for injuries inflicted on its members but accepted compensation instead.

What kept the practice of vengeance alive was the fact that some people could not or would not pay compensation, as the price of a killing was "expensive." For this reason, blood-feud continued in practice long after laws tried to suppress it. Within the kin-group many other types of obligations existed as well. Kin arranged and oversaw the marriages of women, provided dowries, and continued to protect their interests afterward. They also raised the children of a deceased father, and in oaths the guarantors were typically relatives. This system allowed certain individuals to amass great power, prompting laws to prevent abuses of kinship authority.

D. Whitelock "The Beginnings of English Society" Penguin Books, 1974 (ford. Kiss Ágnes)